Figure |
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Page |
1. |
Composition of a dry atmosphere |
2 |
2. |
The atmosphere divided into layers based on temperature |
3 |
3. |
The two temperature scales in common use |
6 |
4. |
World-wide average surface temperatures in July |
8 |
5. |
World-wide average surface temperatures in January |
8 |
6. |
Temperature differences create air movement and, at times, cloudiness |
9 |
7. |
Inverted lapse rates or "inversions" |
10 |
8. |
The mercurial barometer |
12 |
9. |
The aneroid barometer |
13 |
10. |
The standard atmosphere |
14 |
11. |
Three columns of air showing how decrease of pressure with height varies with temperature |
15 |
12. |
Reduction of station pressure to sea level |
15 |
13. |
Pressure systems |
16 |
14. |
Indicated altitude depends on air temperature below the aircraft |
17 |
15. |
When flying from high pressure to lower pressure without adjusting your altimeter, you are |
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losing true altitude |
18 |
16. |
Effect of temperature on altitude |
19 |
17. |
Effect of density altitude on takeoff and climb |
20 |
18. |
Convective current resulting from uneven heating of air by contrasting surface temperatures |
24 |
19. |
Circulation as it would be on a nonrotating globe |
25 |
20. |
Apparent deflective force due to rotation of a horizontal platform |
26 |
21. |
Effect of Coriolis force on wind relative to isobars |
27 |
22. |
In the Northern Hemisphere, Coriolis force turns equatorial winds to westerlies and polar winds to |
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easterlies |
28 |
23. |
Mean world-wide surface pressure distribution in July |
28 |
24. |
Mean world-wide surface pressure distribution in January |
29 |
25. |
General average circulation in the Northern Hemisphere |
30 |
26. |
Air flow around pressure systems above the friction layer |
31 |
27. |
Surface friction slows the wind and reduces Coriolis force; winds are deflected across the isobars |
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toward lower pressure |
32 |
28. |
Circulation around pressure systems at the surface |
33 |
29. |
The "Chinook" is a katabatic (downslope) wind |
33 |
30. |
Land and sea breezes |
34 |
31. |
Wind shear |
35 |
32. |
Blue dots illustrate the increased water vapor capacity of warm air |
38 |
33. |
Relative humidity depends on both temperature and water vapor |
39 |
34. |
Virga |
40 |
35. |
Heat transactions when water changes state |
41 |
36. |
Growth of raindrops by collision of cloud droplets |
42 |
37. |
Lake effects |
43 |
38. |
Strong cold winds across the Great Lakes absorb water vapor and may carry showers |
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as far eastward as the Appalachians |
44 |
39. |
A view of clouds from 27,000 feet over Lake Okeechobee in southern Florida |
45 |
40. |
Decreasing atmospheric pressure causes the balloon to expand as it rises |
48 |
41. |
Adiabatic warming of downward moving air produces the warm Chinook wind |
49 |
42. |
Stability related to temperatures aloft and adiabatic cooling |
50 |
43. |
When stable air is forced upward, cloudiness is flat and stratified. When unstable air is |
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forced upward, cloudiness shows extensive vertical development |
51 |
44. |
Cloud base determination |
52 |
45. |
Cirrus |
54 |
46. |
Cirrocumulus |
55 |
47. |
Cirrostratus |
55 |
48. |
Altocumulus |
56 |
49. |
Altostratus |
56 |
50. |
Altocumulus castellanus |
57 |
51. |
Standing lenticular altocumulus clouds |
58 |
52. |
Nimbostratus |
59 |
53. |
Stratus |
59 |
54. |
Stratocumulus |
60 |
55. |
Cumulus |
60 |
56. |
Towering cumulus |
61 |
57. |
Cumulonimbus |
61 |
58. |
Horizontal uniformity of an air mass |
64 |
59. |
Cross section of a cold front with the weather map symbol |
66 |
60. |
Cross section of a warm front with the weather map symbol |
67 |
61. |
Cross section of a stationary front and its weather map symbol |
68 |
62. |
The life cycle of a frontal wave |
69 |
63. |
Cross section of a warm-front occlusion and its weather map symbol |
70 |
64. |
Cross section of a cold-front occlusion |
71 |
65. |
Frontolysis of a stationary front |
71 |
66. |
Frontogenesis of a stationary front |
72 |
67. |
A cold front underrunning warm, moist, stable air |
73 |
68. |
A cold front underrunning warm, moist, unstable air |
73 |
69. |
A warm front with overrunning moist, stable air |
74 |
70. |
A slow-moving cold front underrunning warm, moist, unstable air |
74 |
71. |
A warm front with overrunning warm, moist, unstable air |
75 |
72. |
A fast moving cold front underrunning warm, moist, unstable air |
75 |
73. |
A warm front occlusion lifting warm, moist, unstable air |
76 |
74. |
A cold front occlusion lifting warm, moist, stable air |
76 |
75. |
An aerial view of a portion of a squall line |
77 |
76. |
Effect of convective currents on final approach |
80 |
77. |
Avoiding turbulence by flying above convective clouds |
81 |
78. |
Eddy currents formed by winds blowing over uneven ground or over obstructions |
82 |
79. |
Turbulent air in the landing area |
83 |
80. |
Wind flow in mountain areas |
84 |
81. |
Schematic cross section of a mountain wave |
84 |
82. |
Standing lenticular clouds associated with a mountain wave |
85 |
83. |
Standing wave rotor clouds marking the rotary circulation beneath mountain waves |
86 |
84. |
Mountain wave clouds over the Tibetan Plateau photographed from a manned spacecraft |
87 |
85. |
Satellite photograph of a mountain wave and the surface analysis for approximately the same time |
87 |
86. |
Wind shear in a zone between relatively calm wind below an inversion and strong wind above the |
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inversion |
88 |
87. |
Wake turbulence wing tip vortices developing as aircraft breaks ground |
89 |
88. |
Planning landing or takeoff to avoid heavy aircraft wake turbulence |
90 |
89. |
Effects of structural icing |
92 |
90. |
Clear, rime, and mixed icing on airfoils |
93 |
91. |
Clear wing icing (leading edge and underside) |
94 |
92. |
Propeller icing |
95 |
93. |
Rime icing on the nose of a Mooney "Mark 21" aircraft |
96 |
94. |
External icing on a pitot tube |
97 |
95. |
Carburetor icing |
98 |
96. |
Internal pitot tube icing |
99 |
97. |
Clear ice on an aircraft antenna mast |
100 |
98. |
Freezing rain with a warm front and a cold front |
101 |
99. |
Frost on an aircraft |
103 |
100. |
The average number of thunderstorms each year |
106 |
101. |
The average number of days with thunderstorms during spring |
107 |
102. |
The average number of days with thunderstorms during summer |
108 |
103. |
The average number of days with thunderstorms during fall |
109 |
104. |
The average number of days with thunderstorms during winter |
110 |
105. |
The stages of a thunderstorm |
112 |
106. |
Schematic of the mature stage of a steady state thunderstorm cell |
113 |
107. |
A tornado |
114 |
108. |
A waterspout |
114 |
109. |
Funnel clouds |
115 |
110. |
Cumulonimbus Mamma clouds |
116 |
111. |
Tornado incidence by State and area |
117 |
112. |
Squall line thunderstorms |
118 |
113. |
Schematic cross section of a thunderstorm |
119 |
114. |
Hail damage to an aircraft |
120 |
115. |
Radar photograph of a line of thunderstorms |
121 |
116. |
Use of airborne radar to avoid heavy precipitation and turbulence |
122 |
117. |
Ground fog as seen from the air |
126 |
118. |
Advection fog in California |
127 |
119. |
Advection fog over the southeastern United States and Gulf Coast |
128 |
120. |
Smoke trapped in stagnant air under an inversion |
129 |
121. |
Aerial photograph of blowing dust approaching with a cold front |
130 |
122. |
Difference between the ceiling caused by a surface-based obscuration and the ceiling |
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caused by a layer aloft |
131 |
123. |
A cross section of the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere |
136 |
124. |
Artist's concept of the jet stream |
137 |
125. |
A jet stream segment |
137 |
126. |
Multiple jet streams |
138 |
127. |
Mean jet positions relative to surface systems |
139 |
128a. |
Satellite photograph of an occluded system |
140 |
128b. |
Infrared photograph of the system shown in figure 128a |
141 |
129. |
A frequent CAT location is along the jet stream north and northeast of a rapidly |
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deepening surface low |
142 |
130. |
Contrails |
144 |
131. |
The Arctic |
148 |
132. |
Sunshine in the Northern Hemisphere |
149 |
133. |
The permanent Arctic ice pack |
150 |
134. |
Average number of cloudy days per month (Arctic) |
151 |
135. |
Visibility reduced by blowing snow |
154 |
136. |
A typical frozen landscape of the Arctic |
154 |
137. |
Vertical cross section illustrating convection in the Intertropical Convergence Zone |
160 |
138. |
Prevailing winds throughout the Tropics in July |
161 |
139. |
Prevailing winds in the Tropics in January |
161 |
140. |
A shear line and an induced trough caused by a polar high pushing into the subtropics |
163 |
141. |
A trough aloft across the Hawaiian Islands |
164 |
142. |
A Northern Hemisphere easterly wave |
165 |
143. |
Vertical cross section along line A-B in figure 142 |
165 |
144. |
Principal regions where tropical cyclones form and their favored directions of movement |
166 |
145. |
Radar photograph of hurricane "Donna" |
168 |
146. |
A hurricane observed by satellite |
169 |
147. |
Thermals generally occur over a small portion of an area while downdrafts predominate |
172 |
148. |
Using surface dust and smoke movement as indications of a thermal |
174 |
149. |
Horizontal cross section of a dust devil rotating clockwise |
174 |
150. |
Cumulus clouds grow only with active thermals |
176 |
151. |
Photograph of a dying cumulus |
177 |
152. |
Altocumulus castellanus clouds are middle level convective clouds |
178 |
153. |
Experience indicates that the "chimney" thermal is the most prevalent type |
179 |
154. |
Thermals may be intermittent "bubbles" |
179 |
155. |
It is believed that a bubble thermal sometimes develops a vortex ring |
180 |
156. |
Wind causes thermals to lean |
181 |
157. |
Photograph of cumulus clouds severed by wind shear |
181 |
158. |
Conditions favorable for thermal streeting |
182 |
159. |
Cumulus clouds in thermal streets photographed from a satellite high resolution camera |
183 |
160. |
The Pseudo-Adiabatic Chart |
184 |
161. |
An early morning upper air observation plotted on the pseudo-adiabatic chart |
185 |
162. |
Computing the thermal index (TI) |
187 |
163. |
Another example of computing TI's and maximum height of thermals |
188 |
164. |
An upper air observation made from an aircraft called an airplane observation or APOB |
189 |
165. |
Schematic cross section through a sea breeze front |
192 |
166. |
Sea breeze flow into the San Fernando Valley |
193 |
167. |
Sea breeze convergence zone, Cape Cod, Massachusetts |
194 |
168. |
Schematic cross section of airflow over a ridge |
195 |
169. |
Strong winds flowing around an isolated peak |
196 |
170. |
Wind flow over various types of terrain |
197 |
171. |
Schematic cross section of a mountain wave |
198 |
172. |
Wave length and amplitude |
199 |